Return to Research Menu
Return to Front Page
Cognitive Dysfunction
51. Schmitt, Richard, Capo, Thomas, Frazier, Hal, and Boren, Darrell. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation of cognitive brain dysfunction in chemical dependence. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 45(2):60-63, 1984.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 2 mS, <1 mA, electrodes behind each ear
This doubleblind study involved 60 alcohol and polydrug abuser inpatient volunteers with an average age of 33.9. Treatment effects were assessed pre- and post test on the Revised Beta Examination and 3 subscales of the WAIS that are clinical indicators of organic brain syndrome (digit span, digit symbol, and object-assembly). 88% of the pts were initially dysfunctional on 1 or more of the 3 WAIS scales, with 63% dysfunctional on 1 or more of the Beta subtests. 40 pts received CES or sham CES treatments, and a third, control group of 20 participated in the normal hospital program without access to CES devices. The study was completed by 87% of the CES treated pts (N = 26), 60% of the sham-treated pts (N = 6), and 85% of the controls (N = 17). It was noted that 80% of the sham-treated pts, but only 20% of the treated pts had complained about the ineffectiveness of CES treatment. Following the study, 2 of the complaining sham pts were given CES and they both said it was a highly effective treatment with WAIS testing supporting these claims. Using Fisher's t-tests (P<.01), CES treated pts made significant gains on all measures of brain function over and above the two control groups. No placebo effects were found. Significant gains were also made on the Revised Beta Examination I.Q. test among CES patients but not by the controls. The authors concluded by agreeing with Dr. Ray Smith's speculation that a treatment program in which patients are treated specifically for cognitive dysfunction is not only humane but can add to the effectiveness of the other treatment modalities in a treatment and rehabilitation setting. No side effects were reported.
52. Schmitt, Richard, Capo, Thomas, Boyd, Elvin. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation as a treatment for anxiety in chemically dependent persons. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 10(2):158-160, 1986.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 20% duty cycle, <1 mA, electrodes behind each ear
60 inpatient alcohol and/or polydrug abusers (mean age = 33.9) volunteered for this double-blind study. 30 were given CES, 10 sham CES, and 20 served as normal hospital routine controls. Dependent measures of anxiety were the Profile of Mood States, the IPAT Anxiety Scale, and the State Trait Anxiety Index. The CES and sham pts received 15 daily, 30 minute treatments. Based on Fisher t-tests of the means, CES treated patients showed significantly greater improvement on all anxiety measures than did either control group. There were no differences in response between older and younger patients, or between the primarily drug or alcohol abusers. No placebo effect was found on any of the measures. The authors concluded that CES is rightfully gaining increasing use in American medicine as it gains increasing confirmation as a significant treatment adjunct for stress and cognitive dysfunction in chemical dependency treatment programs, regardless of the chemical of abuse or the age range of the patients treated. No side effects were reported.
57. Smith, Ray B. Confirming evidence of an effective treatment for brain dysfunction in alcoholic patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 170(5):275278, 1982.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 2 mS, <1.5 mA, electrodes below each ear
100 male alcoholic inpatient volunteers (drinking for an average of 21 years with an average age of 42.2) were randomly assigned to either active or sham CES treatments for this double-blind study, 40 minutes per day, 5 days a week, for 3 weeks on the basis of Revised Beta Examination IQ tests. Both groups had scored in the dysfunctional category on both tests before the study. 5 treatment and 10 controls left the study early and were not counted in the final tabulations. All were treated below sensation threshold. The CES group made significant gains on the Beta I.Q. test at or beyond the .05 level of confidence on subtest I (mazes) from a pretreatment mean for the active group of 8.53 to a post treatment mean of 10.74 with the sham group testing at 8.48 pretreatment to 8.37 post, and on subtest IV (spatial relations) from a pretreatment mean for the active group of 7.18 to a post treatment mean of 8.80 with the sham group testing at 7.21 pretreatment to 7.32 post. While the active group was completely back into the scoring pattern of published norms, the sham group did not improve. The author concluded that in addition to the obvious considerations for the pt such treatment and recovery denotes, as a treatment adjunct in a treatment center, it also appears to be a thoughtful thing to do for those involved in other areas of the treatment effort, and whose efforts usually depend heavily on the cognitive functioning of the pt. It should aid treatment immeasurably, for example, if the pt can remember from 1 treatment session to the next what transpired in the session just preceding. No side effects were reported.
59. Smith, Ray B., Day, Eleanor. The effects of cerebral electrotherapy on shortterm memory impairment in alcoholic patients. International Journal of the Addictions. 12(4):575562, 1977.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 2 mS, 100 - 710 µA, electrodes below each ear
227 alcoholic pts (average age of 42) were given CES (N = 198) or served as time controls (N = 29). CES was given 40 minutes a day, Monday through Friday, for 3 weeks. CES significantly (P<.001) reduced brain dysfunction in all active treatment patients when compared with the controls on the Beta nonverbal I.Q. Test and the Benton Visual Retention Test of short term memory loss. The dysfunctional process continued to deteriorate in many of the controls, with a mean loss of 55% over an average 21 day period. The matched CES treatment pts improved an average of 84% during the same period. The authors concluded that they again found that the more serious disabled alcoholic pts tend to leave early while the less seriously involved stay on for treatment and that CES treatment halts or reverses this trend. This would be helpful if only because it holds the pts for other kinds of therapy offered. However, they also found no other treatment that alters the short-term memory impairment of their pts making CES a valued adjunct to other treatment approaches. No side effects were reported.
60. Smith, Ray B., McCusker, Charles F., Jones, Ruth G., and Goates, Delbert T. The use of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in the treatment of stress related attention deficit disorder, with an eighteen month follow up. Unpublished, 1991 and follow-up in 1993.
Devices: Alpha-Stim CS, CES Labs, Liss Stimulator (randomly assigned)
This study compared the effects of 3 randomly assigned CES devices which had marked differences in electrical stimulation parameters, in the treatment of stress related attention deficit disorder in 23 children and adults, 9 males, 14 females, 9 - 56 years old (average 30.96) with an average education level of 10.56 years. All had been diagnosed as having generalized anxiety disorder (61%), and/or depression (45%), and/or dysthymia (17%). 8 had a primary diagnosis of ADD. CES treatments were given daily, 45 minutes per day for 3 weeks. All 3 CES devices were equally effective based on Duncan's Range test in significantly (P<.001) reducing depression as measured on the IPAT depression scale (mean of 19.38 8.44 pretest to 13.19 7.00 post test), state and trait anxiety scales of the STAI (mean state anxiety was reduced from 39.95 11.78 pretest to 29.76 6.99 post test, and the mean trait anxiety was reduced from 43.90 11.31 pretest to 32.19 7.50 post test), and in increasing the Verbal pretest (mean of 99.38 13.20 to post test of 107.50 14.13), Performance (mean of 107.4 15.05 to 126.6 14.2 ), and Full Scale I.Q. scores on the WISC-R or WAIS-R IQ tests (mean of 103.2 13.7 to 117.6 14.28). The authors concluded that in the unlikely event that our findings are the results of placebo effect alone, a CES device, retailing at approximately $795, would still be a relatively inexpensive and apparently reliable treatment for such a debilitating disorder as stress related ADD. On 18 month follow up, the pts performed as well or better than in the original study, the Full Scale IQ had not moved significantly from where it was after the first 3 weeks of treatment, the Performance IQ fell back slightly, while the Verbal IQ continued to increase. There did not seem to be any pattern of addiction to or over dependence on the CES device. There was no side effects except for 1 pt who cried during treatments, and 1 who was sore behind the ears when the electrode gel began drying out.
61. Smith, Ray B., O'Neill, Lois. Electrosleep in the management of alcoholism. Biological Psychiatry. l0(6):675680, 1975.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 2mS, <1.5 mA, frontal and occipital electrodes
72 male alcoholic inpatients (average age of 42.4, average drinking of 22 years with an average of 5 years of heavy drinking) were given either CES (N = 24 at end of study) or simulated CES (N = 23 at end of study), 40 minutes a day for 15 days. All pts were also receiving medication and psychotherapy. Norms were derived from 342 inpatient alcoholics. The CES group improved significantly (beyond the 0.001 level of confidence) on all 5 negative subscales of the Profile of Mood States while the control group improved on only 2 subscales: Tension-Anxiety and Depression-Dejection. The mean scores were: Tension-Anxiety (pretest active CES mean of 12.61 1.39 to 6.30 0.79 post, control pretest 12.22 1.37 to 6.43 0.95 post), Depression-Dejection (pretest active CES mean of 12.32 1.73 to 4.52 0.87 post, control pretest 12.80 1.79 to 6.80 1.56 post), Anger-Hostility (pretest active CES mean of 6.75 1.41 to 1.21 0.42 post, control pretest 6.63 1.34 to 5.92 1.50 post), Vigor-Activity, a positive score where higher numbers are better (pretest active CES mean of 14.76 1.21 to 15.08 1.02 post, control pretest 14.76 1.25 to 13.00 1.40 post), Fatigue-Inertia-Confusion (pretest active CES mean of 6.18 1.12 to 1.91 0.53 post, control pretest 6.45 1.29 to 4.05 1.32 post), and Confusion-Bewilderment (pretest active CES mean of 8.08 0.99 to 3.92 0.49 post, control pretest 8.00 0.96 to 6.08 0.67 post). The CES group also improved significantly on Total Mood Disturbance while the controls did not (pretest active CES mean of 65.29 6.62 to 40.33 4.69 post, control pretest 63.96 6.56 to 47.29 6.12 post). The groups had to be matched following the study prior to statistical analysis, since a majority of the most seriously stressed controls (N = 13) had left the hospital against medical advice, along with 12 CES pts. No side effects were reported.
63. Smith, Ray B., Tiberi, Arleine, Marshall, John. The use of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in the treatment of closed-head-injured patients. Brain Injury, 8(4):357-361, 1994.
Device: CES Labs, 100 Hz, 20% duty cycle, <1.5 mA
21 closed head injured pts with an average age of 30, and time since injury ranging from 6 months to 32 years (mean = 11) completed informed consent. The statistician was also blinded, being given the data in 3 unidentified groups, making this a triple-blind study. They were randomly assigned to CES treatment (N = 10), sham treatment (N = 5) or control "wait-in-line" (N = 6) groups. The CES and sham groups had 12 treatments, daily over a period of 3 weeks. They were pre- and post-tested on the Profile of Mood States which contains subscales for anxiety, depression, hostility, fatigue and mental confusion. The CES treated subjects, but not the sham treated subjects or controls, improved significantly on every POMS subscale. Tension/anxiety was reduced from a mean of 12.33 7.36 to 8.78 5.09 in the CES treated group, while it rose from 13.00 6.21 pretest to 14.36 8.25 post test in the sham group, and barely changed from 12.33 8.07 to 12.50 5.87 in the control group. Depression/dejection changed from 17.11 12.35 to 12.06 8.71 in the CES treated group, and from 20.91 17.79 pretest to 18.18 12.47 post test in the sham group, and from 20.00 14.45 to 16.17 9.48 in the control group. Anger/hostility changed from 13.67 11.20 to 10.39 7.49 in the CES treated group, and from 16.73 8.27 pretest to 17.55 12.22 post test in the sham group, and from 14.83 11.50 to 14.83 6.18 in the control group. Fatigue/inertia changed from 7.44 6.75 to 5.33 3.96 in the CES treated group, and from 9.46 7.83 pretest to 8.09 6.63 post test in the sham group, and from 8.17 7.41 to 6.50 5.82 in the control group. Confusion/bewilderment changed from 8.50 6.75 to 6.22 3.96 in the CES treated group, and from 10.55 5.87 pretest to 10.27 5.10 post test in the sham group, and from 9.67 6.15 to 10.50 5.01 in the control group. Total Mood Disturbance was reduced from a mean of 45.11 41.95 to 31.89 23.84 in the CES treated group, and from 52.73 41.95 pretest to 52.33 36.64 post test in the sham group, and from 47.83 43.25 to 45.67 24.16 in the control group. 1 pt on sham CES was seen to have a seizure. No negative effects from CES treatments was seen. The authors concluded that therapists of CHI pts may well try adding CES therapy, a prescription, but non-medication treatment, to the treatment of this currently heavily medicated pt population.
76. Wharton, G.W. et al. The use of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in spinal cord injury patients. A poster study presented at the American Spinal Injury Association Meeting, New York, 1982, and at the Texas ASIA meeting in Houston, 1983.
16 inpatients on the Spinal Cord Injury Ward were measured on the POMS, the STAI, and the IPAT Depression Scale. Five were paraplegic and 11 were quadriplegic. They averaged 3.7 months post trauma. 11 were given CES, 40 minutes per day for 10 days. 5 served as hospital routine controls. The CES treated pts improved significantly on the Tension/Anxiety, Depression/Dejection, Fatigue/Inertia, and Confusion/Bewilderment factors on the POMS, on both the state and trait factors on the STAI, and on the IPAT Depression Scale. The control group did not improve on any of the measures. Abstract courtesy of Ray B. Smith, Ph.D., M.P.A.
77. Wilson, L.F. and Childs, A. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for attentiontotask deficit: A case study. American Journal of Electromedicine. 5(6):9399, 1988.
Device: RelaxPak, 100 Hz, 2 mS, 1 mA, sine wave, bilateral electrodes
4 pts with measurable attentiontotask deficit were studied. 2 had severe pain problems (27 year old female and 30 year old male) but no brain injury, while 2 had suffered from post brain trauma (29 year old male, 25 year old female). One of the pain pts served as placebo control (the 30 year old male) for the other 3, each of whom served as his or her own control. CES was given for 50 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 3 weeks. Pts were pre- and post-tested on standardized cognitive measures (Trail Making Test, Digit Symbol Test, Porteus Mazes, Consonant Trigrams Test, Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test, Paced Serial Arithmetic Test) before and following CES, and again 3 weeks later. Pts were also tested on the Profile of Mood States Inventory. The results among the CES treated pts showed striking and significant improvement in the post treatment scores and in the associated extent of the neurological deficit. It was concluded that CES is an effective nondrug alternative in a cognitive rehabilitation model for treating attentiontotask deficit. No side effects were reported.
Learning
30. Madden, Richard, and Kirsch, Daniel, Lowintensity electrostimulation improves human learning. American Journal of Electromedicine. 4(2):41-45, 1987. Also doctoral dissertation (RM), City University Los Angeles, 1987.
Device: Alpha-Stim 350, 0.5 Hz, 50% duty cycle, 200 µA, biphasic rectangular waves, ear clip electrodes
103 normal, healthy volunteer subjects without typing skills, responded to recruitment efforts, 21 failed to satisfy the inclusion criteria or declined to participate. Of the remaining 82, 4 did not show up. 78 (29 males and 49 females) completed this double blind study. They were randomly assigned to receive either 1, 20 minute Alpha-Stim CES treatment session (N = 39), or sham treatment (N = 39). The performance measuring device was a computer game called MasterType designed to teach typing skills, while measuring speed and accuracy. A baseline trial was conducted without stimulation. Immediately following the first trial, the subjects received real or sham CES and began the second trial. A total of 4 trials were completed by all subjects. Performance products (PP's) were obtained by multiplying rate per minute and accuracy scores following the completion of each trial. Prestimulation means of the first 2 trials were calculated as PPt1 (performance product for the first trial). PPt2 represented poststimulation or sham stimulation. The dependent variable was the performance gain score computed by taking the difference between t1 and 12 performance products represented as PG = PPt2 - PPt1. All t-tests were employed at the 0.01 confidence level. CES subjects improved significantly on the computer task involving psychomotor cognitive skills, with a PP4 - PP2 PG mean of 5.6 2.2, while 12 (30.8%) of the sham patients actually experienced a decrement in performance, and none improved significantly: PP4 - PP2 PG mean of 0.7 2.3. The authors concluded that this study demonstrates the efficacy of CES in improving human learning and performance. Normal or learning disabled children might also be taught more efficiently under the immediate or residual effects of CES in classroom settings. Others seeking increased alertness, concentration, and performance may also benefit, such as police officers, automobile drivers, air traffic controllers, surgeons, pilots, and athletes. No side effects were reported.
Attention Deficit Disorder
60. Smith, Ray B., McCusker, Charles F., Jones, Ruth G., and Goates, Delbert T. The use of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in the treatment of stress related attention deficit disorder, with an eighteen month follow up. Unpublished, 1991 and follow-up in 1993.
Devices: Alpha-Stim CS, CES Labs, Liss Stimulator (randomly assigned)
This study compared the effects of 3 randomly assigned CES devices which had marked differences in electrical stimulation parameters, in the treatment of stress related attention deficit disorder in 23 children and adults, 9 males, 14 females, 9 - 56 years old (average 30.96) with an average education level of 10.56 years. All had been diagnosed as having generalized anxiety disorder (61%), and/or depression (45%), and/or dysthymia (17%). 8 had a primary diagnosis of ADD. CES treatments were given daily, 45 minutes per day for 3 weeks. All 3 CES devices were equally effective based on Duncan's Range test in significantly (P<.001) reducing depression as measured on the IPAT depression scale (mean of 19.38 8.44 pretest to 13.19 7.00 post test), state and trait anxiety scales of the STAI (mean state anxiety was reduced from 39.95 11.78 pretest to 29.76 6.99 post test, and the mean trait anxiety was reduced from 43.90 11.31 pretest to 32.19 7.50 post test), and in increasing the Verbal pretest (mean of 99.38 13.20 to post test of 107.50 14.13), Performance (mean of 107.4 15.05 to 126.6 14.2 ), and Full Scale I.Q. scores on the WISC-R or WAIS-R IQ tests (mean of 103.2 13.7 to 117.6 14.28). The authors concluded that in the unlikely event that our findings are the results of placebo effect alone, a CES device, retailing at approximately $795, would still be a relatively inexpensive and apparently reliable treatment for such a debilitating disorder as stress related ADD. On 18 month follow up, the pts performed as well or better than in the original study, the Full Scale IQ had not moved significantly from where it was after the first 3 weeks of treatment, the Performance IQ fell back slightly, while the Verbal IQ continued to increase. There did not seem to be any pattern of addiction to or over dependence on the CES device. There was no side effects except for 1 pt who cried during treatments, and 1 who was sore behind the ears when the electrode gel began drying out.
77. Wilson, L.F. and Childs, A. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for attentiontotask deficit: A case study. American Journal of Electromedicine. 5(6):9399, 1988.
Device: RelaxPak, 100 Hz, 2 mS, 1 mA, sine wave, bilateral electrodes
4 pts with measurable attentiontotask deficit were studied. 2 had severe pain problems (27 year old female and 30 year old male) but no brain injury, while 2 had suffered from post brain trauma (29 year old male, 25 year old female). One of the pain pts served as placebo control (the 30 year old male) for the other 3, each of whom served as his or her own control. CES was given for 50 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 3 weeks. Pts were pre- and post-tested on standardized cognitive measures (Trail Making Test, Digit Symbol Test, Porteus Mazes, Consonant Trigrams Test, Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test, Paced Serial Arithmetic Test) before and following CES, and again 3 weeks later. Pts were also tested on the Profile of Mood States Inventory. The results among the CES treated pts showed striking and significant improvement in the post treatment scores and in the associated extent of the neurological deficit. It was concluded that CES is an effective nondrug alternative in a cognitive rehabilitation model for treating attentiontotask deficit. No side effects were reported.
Suggestability
7. Cox, Aris and Heath, Robert G. Neurotone therapy: A preliminary report of its effect on electrical activity of forebrain structures. Diseases of the Nervous System. 36:245-247, 1975.
Device: Neurotone, 100 Hz, 2 mS, 500 µA
A 41 year old female pt with history of severe depressive disorder was prepared with deep and surface electrodes for long-term brain study. She was given 2, 30 min. CES sessions with a crossover treatment/simulated treatment design, followed by prepost EEG readings. After actual but not simulated treatment, pt reported feeling drowsy and relaxed, and she remained in this relaxed state for about 30 minutes, after which she went to sleep for an hour. This was unusual for her. After the pt awakened, her relaxed state lasted 3 hours. There was also a welldeveloped alpha rhythm in the occipital cortex following actual but not simulated treatment, also unusual for her. Since she was not considered suggestible (several attempts at hypnotism to relieve her symptoms had been unsuccessful), the authors concluded, "electrosleep therapy has a demonstrable physiologic effect in contrast to some published reports that it is only suggestive." No side effects were reported.
48. Ryan, Joseph J. and Souheaver, Gary T. Effects of transcerebral electrotherapy (electrosleep) on state anxiety according to suggestibility levels. Biological Psychiatry. 11(2):233237, 1976.
Device: Neurotone 101, 100 Hz, 2 mS, electrodes on forehead and mastoids
42 psychiatric inpatients (41 males and 1 female) at a Veterans Administration hospital without psychosis or neurological impairment manifesting signs of anxiety either not on medication or not responding satisfactorily to medication who gave informed consent were selected for this double-blind study. They were rated as high suggestible (N = 12) or low suggestible (N = 12) as measured on the Harvard Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and half of each group were randomly assigned to active or simulated CES and given a pretest STAI. This yielded 6 pts per cell for the 2 x 2 factorial design. The remaining pts were treated, but excluded from the study because they scored in the medium suggestibility range. Experimental subjects ranged in age from 21 to 59 years (mean = 38). Treatments were 5, 30 minute sessions on successive days. 6 - 9 days following the last treatment each subject again completed the STAI. The active CES pts mean pretest to post test state anxiety scores were reduced from 58.33 to 43.50 for the low suggestibility group, and from 57.66 to 50.66 for the high suggestibility group. The placebo pts pretest to post test state anxiety scores were reduced from 57.33 to 57.16 for the low suggestibility group, and from 56.33 to 55.00 for the high suggestibility group. Subjects in the active CES group showed significantly greater anxiety reduction than did subjects in the placebo condition (P<.01, F = 8.26). There was no overall effect of suggestibility, nor was there a significant interaction between suggestibility and type of treatment. That is, CES was related to positive changes, and no placebo effect could be found as measured by the suggestibility level of patients. The authors stated that the management of anxiety is a significant problem for medical and psychiatric practitioners. Chemotherapy, although highly effective in many cases, cannot be considered the final regime. Total reliance upon prescription medications predisposes the patient to possible untoward side effects, physiologic dependence, and overdose. The development of a safe, effective, and economical treatment for anxiety is worthy of serious investigation. They then concluded that this study demonstrated that active CES produced significantly greater reductions in anxiety than did a simulated treatment. No side effects were reported.
Reaction Time, Vigilance
23. Itil, T., Gannon P., Akpinar, S., Hsu, W. Quantitative EEG analysis of electrosleep using frequency analyzer and digital computer methods. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 31:294, 1971.
Device: Electrosone 50
10 male volunteers received EEG recordings with two days of CES and two days of sham CES in a crossover design. Pts who exhibited no decrease of vigilance when CES was off also showed no significant changes when CES was on. Those showing a slighttomoderate drowsiness during the off recording did show a slighttomoderate sleep pattern when the CES was on. There was no significant EEG difference between the on and off sessions recorded during resting time. However, during reaction time measurements there was an increase in 510 c/sec activity and a decrease in fast alpha and beta activity when CES was on as compared with the recordings taken with CES off. No side effects were
30. Madden, Richard, and Kirsch, Daniel, Lowintensity electrostimulation improves human learning. American Journal of Electromedicine. 4(2):41-45, 1987. Also doctoral dissertation (RM), City University Los Angeles, 1987.
Device: Alpha-Stim 350, 0.5 Hz, 50% duty cycle, 200 µA, biphasic rectangular waves, ear clip electrodes
103 normal, healthy volunteer subjects without typing skills, responded to recruitment efforts, 21 failed to satisfy the inclusion criteria or declined to participate. Of the remaining 82, 4 did not show up. 78 (29 males and 49 females) completed this double blind study. They were randomly assigned to receive either 1, 20 minute Alpha-Stim CES treatment session (N = 39), or sham treatment (N = 39). The performance measuring device was a computer game called MasterType designed to teach typing skills, while measuring speed and accuracy. A baseline trial was conducted without stimulation. Immediately following the first trial, the subjects received real or sham CES and began the second trial. A total of 4 trials were completed by all subjects. Performance products (PP's) were obtained by multiplying rate per minute and accuracy scores following the completion of each trial. Prestimulation means of the first 2 trials were calculated as PPt1 (performance product for the first trial). PPt2 represented poststimulation or sham stimulation. The dependent variable was the performance gain score computed by taking the difference between t1 and 12 performance products represented as PG = PPt2 - PPt1. All t-tests were employed at the 0.01 confidence level. CES subjects improved significantly on the computer task involving psychomotor cognitive skills, with a PP4 - PP2 PG mean of 5.6 2.2, while 12 (30.8%) of the sham patients actually experienced a decrement in performance, and none improved significantly: PP4 - PP2 PG mean of 0.7 2.3. The authors concluded that this study demonstrates the efficacy of CES in improving human learning and performance. Normal or learning disabled children might also be taught more efficiently under the immediate or residual effects of CES in classroom settings. Others seeking increased alertness, concentration, and performance may also benefit, such as police officers, automobile drivers, air traffic controllers, surgeons, pilots, and athletes. No side effects were reported.
Return to Research Menu
Return to Front Page